INTRODUCTION:

Water is an essential component of the environment and it sustains life on the earth. Human beings depend on water for their survival. Water is also a raw material for photosynthesis and therefore, is important for crop production. Obviously, an optimum agricultural production depends on water and soil quality¹. The pollution of groundwater is of major concern, firstly because of increasing utilization for human needs and secondly because of the ill effects of the increased industrial activity. The groundwater is believed to be comparatively much clean and free from pollution than surface water. But prolonged discharge of industrial effluents, domestic sewage and solid waste dump causes the groundwater to become polluted and created health problems².

Groundwater chemistry, in turn, depends on a number of factors, such as general geology, degree of chemical weathering of the various rock types, quality of recharge water and inputs from sources other than water rock interaction. Such factors and their interactions result in a complex groundwater quality^3-5. Anthropogenic activities like explosion of population, industrial growth, inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and irrigation has been a crucial factor for determining the quality of groundwater. Numerous publications have reported that urban development and agricultural activities directly or indirectly affect the groundwater quality^6-11.

Chlorides are present in both fresh and salt water, and are essential elements of life. Salts such as table salt are composed of ions that are bonded together. When table salt is mixed with water, its sodium and chloride ions separate as they dissolve. Chloride ions in the environment can come from sodium chloride or from other chloride salts such as potassium chloride, calcium chloride and magnesium chloride. The concentration of chlorides has sharply increased in many bodies of water since the widespread adoption of road salt as a deicer in the 1970s, and the ecological implications of this change have yet to be fully determined. Scientists who study watersheds use elevated chloride levels as one indicator of pollution in a body of water.

Chloride is widely distributed in nature, generally as the sodium (NaCl) and potassium (KCl) salts; it constitutes approximately 0.05% of the lithosphere¹². By far the greatest amount of chloride found in the environment is in the oceans (Surface Water). Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), chlorine, soda ash (sodium carbonate), sodium chlorite, sodium bicarbonate and sodium hypochlorite. Sodium chloride and, to a lesser extent, calcium chloride (CaCl₂) are used for snow and ice control. Potassium chloride is used in the production of fertilizers^12,13.

Chloride is often associated with sodium since sodium chloride is a common constituent of some water sources, especially well water. Levels above 140 ppm are considered to be toxic for plants¹⁴. However, a value of 600 mg/l has been set as the tolerance limit for irrigation water¹⁵.

OCCURANCE OF CHLORIDE:

The presence of chloride in drinking water sources can be attributed to the dissolution of salt deposits¹⁶, salting of highways to control ice and snow^17–21, effluents from chemical industries²², oil well operations²³, sewage²⁴, irrigation drainage²⁵, refuse leachates²⁶, volcanic emanations, sea spray and seawater intrusion in coastal areas¹², Each of these sources may result in local contamination of surface water and groundwater.

Chlorides constitute approximately 0.05% of the earth’s crust. Chloride concentrations of between 1 and 100 ppm (parts per million) are normal in freshwater. Chloride ions come into solution in water in underground aquifers, geological formations that contain groundwater. In coastal areas, chloride from saltwater aquifers, sea spray, and coastal flooding can also find its way into freshwater waters. Seawater has a natural chloride concentration of 35,000 ppm. Plants and animals that live in salt or brackish (mixed salt and fresh) water is adapted to live with high chloride concentrations. Once chlorides are in a water body, there are no biological processes that remove them. They are not typically removed at water treatment plants due to restrictively high cost. Natural spikes in chloride concentration can occur during summer “low flow” periods when evaporation exceeds precipitation. However, recent increases in chloride concentrations nationwide are thought to be due to anthropogenic, or human-caused, factors such as road salt, sewage contamination, and water softeners.

A third anthropogenic source of chlorides in groundwater is fertilizer made with potash, or mined salts. Potassium chloride is the salt most commonly used in potash fertilizer, and potassium (K on fertilizer bags) is one of three essential nutrients (along with N - nitrogen and P -phosphorous) that are added to increase soil fertility on farms and home gardens and lawns. However, like nitrogen and phosphorous, chloride can leach from fertilized soils into rivers and streams.

STUDY AREA AND ITS TOPOGRAPHY: MALDA DISTRICT (W.B.):

For studies on pollution assessment in surface and ground water in Malda District for drinking water purpose, one of the populated area having all types of water resources in use has been taken up as a study area. Here for this purpose the scholar has taken the township of Malda of Malda district of West Bengal. West Bengal a well known state of India (Figure 1) was separated from the old Bengal state in 1905 by Lord Curzon.

Figure 1: Location of West Bengal in India

It consists of three divisions namely Jalpaiguri Division, Burdwan Division and Presidency Division. Jalpaiguri Division comprises of six districts namely, Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling, Cooch Behar, Malda, North Dinajpur and South Dinajpur. Malda district consists of fifteen blocks namely, Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II, Kaliachak-III, English Bazar, Old Malda, Habipur, Bamangola, Gazole, Ratua-I, Ratua-II, Manikchak, Chanchal-I, Chanchal-II, Harishchandrapur-I and Harishchandrapur-II. English Bazar is a township having all different types of water resources for drinking purpose and hence for study purpose this township has been taken up as a model for research study on the pollution status and assessment of surface and ground water in Malda for drinking purpose.

Malda - West Bengal

Malda has a rich colonial history and is well known for its natural beauty and the rivers. It has seen many great rulers in the past from the Buddhist, Hindus and the Muslim.

The district experienced extreme climate conditions and is found to be a very important district in West Bengal(Figure 2). During the British rule it was known as the English Bazaar. Malda is situated on the confluence of the rivers Kalindi and Mahananda. It is located on latitude range is 24 degree 40 ' 20" N to 25 degree 32'08" N and longitude range is 87 degree 45' 50" E to 88 degree 28'10" E. The district occupies an area of 3,733.66 sq KM. the district is surround by Murshidabad district to the south, North Dinajpur to the north, and Bangladesh to the east. The west side shares its borders with Jharkhand and Bihar.

Figure 2: Location of Malda in West Bengal

Malda district is well connected with roads and railway transport to different parts of the country. The railway station found here is named as Malda town. Most of the trains that are bound for North Bengal and North eastern states pass through Malda town station. The district also has National Highway 34 and the second National Highway No that passes through the district is NH-81. The head quarter is located at Ingraj Bazar. There are plenty of roads that connect to major towns like the Manik Chak, Maldah, Habibpur, Bamangola, Kahrab, Harishchadrapur, Samsi, Kaliachak and Bahgabanpur (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Position of Different Block of Malda District

The Mahananda River divides Malda district into two regions. The Ganga River flows along the south western boundary. Some of the other rivers are the Tangoan, Kalindri, Bhagirathi, Punarbhaba and Pagla (Figure 4).

Malda had a population of 3,997,970 according to 2011 report and ranks 58th in India. The density of population per square kilometer is 1,071. The district recorded a sex ratio of 939 females per 1000 males. The literacy rate is 62.71 percent.

Figure 4: Road map of Malda District

The district comprises of 59 percent of Muslim people, 40 percent Hindus and one percent of other religion. The language spoken here is Urdu, Bengali, Hindi and Maithili. There are also some regional languages as well.

Malda is a beautiful place and is rich in history. It boosts of various monuments, mosques, temples and various other buildings from the British and pre-British rule. The Jama Masjid, Nimsari tower, Raiganj bird sanctuary, museum, ruins of Gaur and Pandua etc are some of the interesting places to visit in Malda.

SAMPLE COLLECTION:

The Water Treatment Plant, Dariapur, Malda town is located at the eastern bank of river Ganga at the stream and is about 24 kms, from the main town. It was installed in 2003. It has eight gravity filtration units. The present capacity of gravity filtration plant is 47.5 MLD (Million liter a day), which fall scanty and do not fulfill the present demand of 17.5 MLD (Million liter a day). Its coagulant aid disinfection units are functional. Water taps located at the different places of the town were selected. The sources of flowing water in all are from water-work station. The first site was located at the filtration unit itself and subsequent sites were from different public and private taps. For routine study three different points were selected in the township. Beside samples were also collected randomly from different places of the town.

1. Tube Well / Hand Pump: Tube-wells commonly called as ‘Hand-pumps’ have become very popular and are extensively used for domestic need. At least two tube-wells (Plate 1) of different places, were selected for periodical regular study of water. Both tube-wells are public wells and are installed at the different places of the town. Surroundings of these two tube-ells were very unhygienic. Out of 149 tube-wells installed at Malda, water from about 100 tube-wells were tested randomly on intervals.

2. Pond Water:

Ponds are very popular in the villages and are extensively used for domestic need. At least two ponds (Plate 1) of different places, were selected for periodical regular study of water. Both ponds are public wells and are installed at the different places of the district. Surroundings of these two ponds were very unhygienic.

3. Well Water: At least two public wells were selected for regular monitoring of water quality some of the wells (Plate 3) of the town is extensively used by local people for drinking at homes as well as in the hotels. It is well built having a cement floor around. Water of some wells is mostly used for offering to God and Goddess in the nearly temples. A small group of people use it for drinking purposes this has been built improperly without any sanitation and their surroundings are unhygienic.

4. River Water:

River are very popular for poor people and are extensively used for domestic need and this river water supplied for the people of Dulalganj of Kaliachak-II Block of Malda District. The sample were collected from different places, were selected for periodical regular study of water (Plate 4).

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Comparative study of the physico-chemical and biological properties of the five different drinking water sources (viz., River, well water, tube-well water, boring water, pond water notified supply water etc.) were studied for two consecutive years from March, 2011 to February, 2013 regularly at monthly intervals. Water samples were properly collected in the polyethene bottles during morning between 8.00 A.M. and 11.00 A.M. Standard methods prescribed in the standard manuals and work-books were followed and consulted for the analysis of chloride in the sample.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

1. Determination of Chloride in the Sample

It is considered as the pollution indicator when present in high concentration chloride contents of water ranged in between 2.4 ppm to 3.6 ppm in March-2011 to Feb.-2012 and 2.2 ppm to 3.6 ppm in March-2012 to Feb.-2013 in river supply water, 15.0 ppm to 22.72 ppm in March 2011 to Feb.-2012 and 15.0 ppm to 22.7 ppm in March-2012 to Feb.-2013 in tube-well water and 25.0 ppm to 29.5 in March-2011 to Feb.-2012 and 25.0 ppm to 29.5 ppm in March-2012 to Feb.-2013 in well water and 22.29 ppm to 35.11 ppm in March-2011 to Feb.-2012 and 22.29 ppm to 32.11 ppm in March-2012 to Feb.-2013 in Pond water. Details data are given in Table 1 and Table2.

Table 1: Average Monthly Chloride Level from Different Water Source (River, Tube-Well, Well and Pond) of Malda District from March 2011 to February 2012

Month	March	April	May	June	July	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Jan	Feb
Cl^-(mg/lit) *(River Water)*	2.4	2.5	2.7	2.6	2.8	3.2	3.0	3.6	3.2	2.4	2.5	2.6
Cl^-(mg/lit) *(Tube-Well Water)*	20.23	22.36	15.92	16.72	18.70	19.11	15.0	16.72	21.11	22.72	16.19	17.89
Cl^-(mg/lit) *(Well Water)*	26.2	25.0	26.4	28.8	27.5	28.5	29.5	28.0	26.5	26.0	26.2	26.8
Cl^-(mg/lit) *(Pond Water)*	29.11	23.0	24.52	22.29	24.52	28.60	26.32	30.11	35.11	25.0	24.9	29.87

Table 2: Average Monthly Chloride Level from Different Water Source (River, Tube-Well, Well and Pond) of Malda District from March 2012 to February 2013

Month	March	April	May	June	July	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Jan	Feb
Cl^-(mg/lit) *(River Water)*	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.6	2.8	3.2	3.0	3.6	3.2	2.4	2.5	2.3
Cl^-(mg/lit) *(Tube-Well Water)*	20.22	22.36	15.92	16.72	18.70	19.11	15.0	16.72	21.11	22.72	16.19	17.81
Cl^-(mg/lit) *(Well Water)*	25.2	25.0	26.4	26.8	27.5	28.5	29.5	28.0	26.5	26.0	26.2	25.8
Cl^-(mg/lit) *(Pond Water)*	26.11	25.0	25.52	22.29	24.52	25.60	26.32	30.11	32.11	25.0	24.9	25.87

2. Variation of Chloride Concentration with Time and Sources

Average monthly variation of chloride from different source such as river, tube-well, well and pond water of Malda district from March 2012 to February 2013 shown by a representative plot in the Figure 5.

Figure 5:- . Average Monthly Variation in Chloride of River, Tube-well, well and Pond water of Malda district from March 2012 to Feb-2013

3. Correlation and Significance of Results

Summer season showed the highest value at all the sources, where as rainy season showed the minimum value. Billore and Patralekh^{27, 28} also notices the same results in each river supply water, Sahai and Sinha²⁹ reported lower chloride concentration during winter seasons. In freshwater systems, greater amount o chloride might be due to dumping of sewage, organic matters of animal origin, industrial effluents and due to bathing activities. According to Own by and Kee³⁰ chloride concentration can be influenced by the weathering of soil and rocks, atmospheric precipitation, environmental factors and pollution sources like industries, municipal wastes etc. statistical analysis showed very high significant positive correlation (1% level) with chloride. River and well water did not show significant correlation with any parameter.

Every water supply contains some chloride. Chloride is common in nature, generally as a salt. Most chloride found in nature is in the oceans. However, underground deposits are found in most Canadian provinces. Sodium chloride is also used in industry for making chemicals, and to melt snow and ice.

ESSENTIALITY:

Chloride is an essential element and is the main extracellular anion in the body. It is a highly mobile ion that easily crosses cell membranes and is involved in maintaining proper osmotic pressure, water balance and acid–base balance. Until recently, it had been assumed that the physiological role of the chloride ion was simply that of a passive counter ion. Over the past few years, however, several studies have suggested that the chloride ion may play a more active and independent role in renal function^31,
32 neurophysiology³³ and nutrition³⁴.

OTHER CONSIDERATION:

Chloride increases the electrical conductivity of water and thus increases its corrosivity. In metal pipes, chloride reacts with metal ions to form soluble salts³⁵, thus increasing levels of metals in drinking-water. In lead pipes, a protective oxide layer is built up, but chloride enhances galvanic corrosion³⁶. It can also increase the rate of pitting corrosion of metal pipes³⁵.

Chloride does occur in nature. However, if chloride is present where it does not occur naturally, it may be due to human causes. Usually, chloride has a strong taste at high levels. However, it may not always be noticeable when present.

Chloride can be costly to remove from water. Boiling the water will NOT decrease the chloride concentration. Effective treatment technologies include: reverse osmosis, distillation, and ion exchange.

Saskatchewan’s Drinking Water Quality Standards and Objectives and Health Canada’s Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality both establish an aesthetic objective (AO) of less than 250 mg/L of chloride in drinking water. Drinking water with levels of chloride above 250 mg/L may cause corrosion in distribution systems and may be detectable by taste. The level of 250 mg/L of chloride is sufficient to reduce agricultural yield particularly from some fruit and berry bearing plants. Home treatment systems should conform to the National Sanitation Foundation standard for the removal of total dissolved solids, which includes dissolved chloride (NSF Standard 58 for reverse osmosis units and NSF Standard 62 for distillation units).

Most water quality testing laboratories can determine how much chloride is present in a water supply. For information on sampling instructions and containers, you should contact an accredited laboratory. If using the Saskatchewan Disease Control Laboratory (Provincial Lab), sample containers are available from the laboratory, local Health Regions, or rural municipalities.

EFFECTS ON HUMANS:

A normal adult human body contains approximately 81.7 g chloride. On the basis of a total obligatory loss of chloride of approximately 530 mg/day, a dietary intake for adults of 9 mg of chloride per kg of body weight has been recommended (equivalent to slightly more than 1 g of table salt per person per day). For children up to 18 years of age, a daily dietary intake of 45 mg of chloride should be sufficient³⁷. A dose of 1 g of sodium chloride per kg of body weight was reported to have been lethal in a 9-week-old child³⁵.

Chloride toxicity has not been observed in humans except in the special case of impaired sodium chloride metabolism, e.g. in congestive heart failure³⁸. Healthy individuals can tolerate the intake of large quantities of chloride provided that there is concomitant intake of fresh water. Little is known about the effect of prolonged intake of large amounts of chloride in the diet. The toxicity of chloride salts depends on the cation present; that of chloride itself is unknown. Although excessive intake of drinking-water containing sodium chloride at concentrations above 2.5 g/litre has been reported to produce hypertension³⁹, this effect is believed to be related to the sodium ion concentration.

CONTROL OF CHLORIDE:

Normally, the best method to control sodium and chloride in drinking water is to better manage those activities that add salt in the recharge area of the water supply source (s). The following are the most common sources of salt in water supply recharge areas.

1. Water softeners: Sodium is added to drinking water directly during the softening process, and indirectly by the discharge of waste brine (salt dissolved in water) into subsurface disposal systems. The amount of salt added by a water softener is most influenced by the water’s hardness. High hardness increases the sodium level of the treated water.

The volume of waste brine generated by the regeneration cycle of a softener can be reduced by using a water meter or ion probe to trigger the regeneration cycle. This method is called demand regeneration.

2. Sanitary Significance of Sodium and Chloride

Sodium and chloride are also present in domestic sewage. Finding the source of elevated sodium and chloride is important since this may indicate the nearby disposal of sewage. The presence of elevated sodium and chloride must initially be considered as an indication of increased risk of more serious bacterial or chemical pollution until a more detailed analysis identifies the origin of the sodium and chloride.

ANALYTICAL METHODS AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY:

Several analytical techniques may be used for chloride in water, including titration (e.g., potentiometric titration with silver nitrate), colorimetry (e.g., thiocyanate colorimetry), chloride ion selective electrode and ion chromatography⁴⁰. Limits of detection range from 50 μg/L for colorimetry to 5 mg/L for titration. Because chloride is very soluble in water, it is not easily removed, and conventional water treatment processes are generally ineffective⁴¹. A removal of 87% has been reported using a point-of-use treatment device employing granular activated carbon adsorption and reverse osmosis⁴². Chloride concentrations in water may increase during the treatment process if, chlorine is used for disinfection purposes or if aluminum or iron chlorides are used for flocculation purposes⁴³.

1. Reverse Osmosis (RO)

This method places water under pressure against a special membrane. The membrane allows water molecules to move through, but retards the passage of salt and other dissolved minerals. RO is not practical for high-volume needs due to the inefficiency associated with the water “reject” rate.

2. Distillation

This method first boils water to produce steam. The steam is then condensed to produce purified drinking water. Salts and other mineral impurities stay in the boiling chamber. The boiling chamber requires periodic cleaning to remove the accumulated minerals. Distillation is not effective for organic contaminants. Distillation is costly to operate and is only feasible for a few gallons of water produced per day. The reject heat during the summer is objectionable to most people.

3. De-ionization

This method has similarities to a water softener, but uses strong acids and bases rather than salt to regenerate the system. While it is an effective method, the dangerous chemicals are inappropriate in a residence.

Where treatment is going to be installed, the size of the device can range from an under-the-sink system to a full-house system. If pure drinking water is the only goal, then an under-the-sink system will suffice.

Elevated levels of sodium and chloride somewhat increase the water’s ionic conductance, and thus slightly increase the potential for corrosive water damage to plumbing fixtures. To reduce this damage, a whole-house water treatment system would be needed.

CONCLUSIONS:

Chloride concentrations in excess of about 250 mg/litre can give rise to detectable taste in water, but the threshold depends upon the associated cations. Consumers can, however, become accustomed to concentrations in excess of 250 mg/litre. No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride in drinking-water.

In conclusion, the concentrations of the investigated chloride ion, in the water samples from the Malda District were within the permissible limits and the chloride is within the permissible limits for drinking water recommended by BIS (1991) and WHO (1984). Above cited results shows that the overall water quality of Malda District is suitable for drinking purpose as well as domestic purpose in absence of other pollutants.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Received on 31.12.2017 Modified on 20.03.2018

Asian J. Research Chem. 2018; 11(2):329-336.

DOI:10.5958/0974-4150.2018.00060.3